Greek Gods- Rome- Middle Ages- England

Henry II. the First Plantagenet King

The Plantagenet Kings of England begin with Henry II., who became King in the year 1153, and end with Richard II. two hundred and forty-five years later. The father of Henry II. was the first to bear this name, and he received it because of his habit of wearing a sprig of the "broom" plant (planta genesta) in his cap.

"Planta Genesta"

Henry II. was already a brilliant and powerful ruler when he became King of England. Later he gained lordship over Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. At their fullest extent, his dominions included most of the British Isles, and about half of France. This made him the most powerful monarch in all Europe.

Henry's personal appearance was striking. He had broad shoulders, a thick neck, a large round head, and a ruddy complexion. He had great physical strength, and was accustomed to riding long and hard. In one day he could make a journey for which others took twice or thrice as long. He surprised both friends and enemies with his rapid movements.

No one worked harder than did King Henry, and throughout his reign of thirty-five years his energy never failed.

Seal of Henry II

In addition, he had an orderly mind, which enabled him to make a plan, and follow it out against all obstacles. He was masterful, and forced men to follow his will. Like all his family, Henry II. was subject to terrible fits of anger, and dark stories were told of a witch ancestress from whom came the taint of blood which twisted into evil the strong passions and high courage of his race. One who knew Henry  said:

"He is a lamb when in good humor; but he is a lion, or worse than a lion, when he is seriously angry. But no one is more gentle to the distressed, more affable to the poor, more overbearing to the proud."

Henry II. began at once to restore order and to reform the government. He systematized the collection of taxes, and he replaced the bad money then in circulation with new silver coins.

He improved the military system in two ways. First, those English barons who did not wish to follow him in his wars in France were permitted to remain at home, but were required to pay a tax called "scutage," or shield money. With this money Henry hired foreign soldiers, who would go where he wished and remain with him as long as necessary. Thus the barons themselves placed in the king's hands a means of keeping them in order. In the second place, King Henry proclaimed a law which required every free man to provide himself with weapons and armor according to his means, and to be ready to serve in the army when needed. The highest class of common freemen were to have each a helmet, a coat of mail, a shield, and a lance. These improvements gave the King a stronger army, and made him independent of the barons.

Henry's greatest work was in reforming the system of law courts. He wished to establish one law for all parts of England, and for all classes of people. There were many courts, some held by the lords on their estates, or manors, and some held by the sheriffs in the shires; but there was no connection among them, and the same kind of offense might be punished more severely in one place than in another. To remedy this evil, the King appointed learned judges, whose duty it was to travel about the country and preside over each shire court, at least once a year. All people then had an opportunity to get justice from the King's own officers; and because the King's justice was good, it was preferred by the people.

A greater reform was that which made the methods by which trials were conducted.

The older models of trial depended largely upon superstition, accident, or force. Since the coming of the Normans, the most important form of trial was "trial by battle," or the duel. The accuser threw down his gauntlet, which was taken up by the person accused; then the judge set a time and place for them to fight the combat. This was really an appeal to the judgment of God, for it was supposed that God would interfere to protect the innocent and reveal the guilty.

Trial by Battle

Other forms of trial were the "ordeals." In the "ordeal by fire" the accused person was required to carry a piece of red-hot iron in his bare hand for a distance of nine feet. His hand was then bandaged by the priest, and if at the end of three days the wound was "clean," he was declared innocent. In the "ordeal by hot water" the hand was plunged into a kettle of boiling water, and then bandaged. In the "ordeal by cold water" the person accused was thrown into running water, with his hands and feet tied together. If he floated he was guilty; if he sank he was innocent, and must be hauled out.

In none of these modes of trial was there any attempt to find out the facts of the case, by hearing testimony and weighing evidence. It was one of the great merits of Henry II. that he brought into general use a reasonable form of trial—that which developed into our "trial by jury." This was first applied to cases concerning land; but later (after 1217), when the Church saw the folly and impiety of the ordeal, trial by jury was used in criminal cases as well.

Another reform made by Henry II. grew into the "grand jury," by which today a body of citizens inquires into crimes and makes "indictments" or accusations against the criminals, so that they may be brought to trial. In the olden days, when powerful protectors sometimes shielded guilty persons, and no individual dared come forward to accuse them, such an accusation, in the name of the community, was necessary.

By these judicial reforms, the administration of justice was made surer, speedier, and more certain. Jury trial also trained the people to take part in the administration of the law, and so fitted them for those larger privileges in the making of the law which were to come to them later on.

In the early part of his reign, Henry's chief counselor was Thomas Becket, his Chancellor, or chief secretary. Becket had received the highest education of the time, by study in the newly founded schools of Oxford, by travel in Italy, and by service in the church. He was known as a man of ability in public affairs. Henry showered riches and favors upon his new Chancellor; and Becket adopted a magnificent style of life, and rivaled the King himself in the splendor of his robes and the number of his servants. This did not displease Henry, so long as Thomas in return rendered him good service.